combinat-0.2.10.1: src/Math/Combinat/Groups/Free.hs
-- | Words in free groups (and free powers of cyclic groups).
--
-- This module is not re-exported by "Math.Combinat"
--
{-# LANGUAGE CPP, BangPatterns, PatternGuards #-}
module Math.Combinat.Groups.Free where
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-- new Base exports "Word" from Data.Word...
#ifdef MIN_VERSION_base
#if MIN_VERSION_base(4,7,1)
import Prelude hiding ( Word )
#endif
#elif __GLASGOW_HASKELL__ >= 709
import Prelude hiding ( Word )
#endif
import Data.Char ( chr )
import Data.List ( mapAccumL , groupBy )
import Control.Monad ( liftM )
import System.Random
import Math.Combinat.Numbers
import Math.Combinat.Sign
import Math.Combinat.Helper
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-- * Words
-- | A generator of a (free) group, indexed by which \"copy\" of the group we are dealing with.
data Generator idx
= Gen !idx -- @a@
| Inv !idx -- @a^(-1)@
deriving (Eq,Ord,Show,Read)
-- | The index of a generator
genIdx :: Generator idx -> idx
genIdx g = case g of
Gen x -> x
Inv x -> x
-- | The sign of the (exponent of the) generator (that is, the generator is 'Plus', the inverse is 'Minus')
genSign :: Generator idx -> Sign
genSign g = case g of { Gen _ -> Plus ; Inv _ -> Minus }
genSignValue :: Generator idx -> Int
genSignValue g = case g of { Gen _ -> (1::Int) ; Inv _ -> (-1::Int) }
-- | keep the index, but return always the 'Gen' one.
absGen :: Generator idx -> Generator idx
absGen g = case g of
Gen x -> Gen x
Inv x -> Gen x
-- | A /word/, describing (non-uniquely) an element of a group.
-- The identity element is represented (among others) by the empty word.
type Word idx = [Generator idx]
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-- | Generators are shown as small letters: @a@, @b@, @c@, ...
-- and their inverses are shown as capital letters, so @A=a^-1@, @B=b^-1@, etc.
showGen :: Generator Int -> Char
showGen (Gen i) = chr (96+i)
showGen (Inv i) = chr (64+i)
showWord :: Word Int -> String
showWord = map showGen
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
instance Functor Generator where
fmap f g = case g of
Gen x -> Gen (f x)
Inv y -> Inv (f y)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-- | The inverse of a generator
inverseGen :: Generator a -> Generator a
inverseGen g = case g of
Gen x -> Inv x
Inv x -> Gen x
-- | The inverse of a word
inverseWord :: Word a -> Word a
inverseWord = map inverseGen . reverse
-- | Lists all words of the given length (total number will be @(2g)^n@).
-- The numbering of the generators is @[1..g]@.
allWords
:: Int -- ^ @g@ = number of generators
-> Int -- ^ @n@ = length of the word
-> [Word Int]
allWords g = go where
go !0 = [[]]
go !n = [ x:xs | xs <- go (n-1) , x <- elems ]
elems = [ Gen a | a<-[1..g] ]
++ [ Inv a | a<-[1..g] ]
-- | Lists all words of the given length which do not contain inverse generators
-- (total number will be @g^n@).
-- The numbering of the generators is @[1..g]@.
allWordsNoInv
:: Int -- ^ @g@ = number of generators
-> Int -- ^ @n@ = length of the word
-> [Word Int]
allWordsNoInv g = go where
go !0 = [[]]
go !n = [ x:xs | xs <- go (n-1) , x <- elems ]
elems = [ Gen a | a<-[1..g] ]
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-- * Random words
-- | A random group generator (or its inverse) between @1@ and @g@
randomGenerator
:: RandomGen g
=> Int -- ^ @g@ = number of generators
-> g -> (Generator Int, g)
randomGenerator !d !g0 = (gen, g2) where
(b, !g1) = random g0
(k, !g2) = randomR (1,d) g1
gen = if b then Gen k else Inv k
-- | A random group generator (but never its inverse) between @1@ and @g@
randomGeneratorNoInv
:: RandomGen g
=> Int -- ^ @g@ = number of generators
-> g -> (Generator Int, g)
randomGeneratorNoInv !d !g0 = (Gen k, g1) where
(!k, !g1) = randomR (1,d) g0
-- | A random word of length @n@ using @g@ generators (or their inverses)
randomWord
:: RandomGen g
=> Int -- ^ @g@ = number of generators
-> Int -- ^ @n@ = length of the word
-> g -> (Word Int, g)
randomWord !d !n !g0 = (word,g1) where
(g1,word) = mapAccumL (\g _ -> swap (randomGenerator d g)) g0 [1..n]
-- | A random word of length @n@ using @g@ generators (but not their inverses)
randomWordNoInv
:: RandomGen g
=> Int -- ^ @g@ = number of generators
-> Int -- ^ @n@ = length of the word
-> g -> (Word Int, g)
randomWordNoInv !d !n !g0 = (word,g1) where
(g1,word) = mapAccumL (\g _ -> swap (randomGeneratorNoInv d g)) g0 [1..n]
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-- * The free group on @g@ generators
{-# SPECIALIZE multiplyFree :: Word Int -> Word Int -> Word Int #-}
{-# SPECIALIZE equivalentFree :: Word Int -> Word Int -> Bool #-}
{-# SPECIALIZE reduceWordFree :: Word Int -> Word Int #-}
{-# SPECIALIZE reduceWordFreeNaive :: Word Int -> Word Int #-}
-- | Multiplication of the free group (returns the reduced result). It is true
-- for any two words w1 and w2 that
--
-- > multiplyFree (reduceWordFree w1) (reduceWord w2) = multiplyFree w1 w2
--
multiplyFree :: Eq idx => Word idx -> Word idx -> Word idx
multiplyFree w1 w2 = reduceWordFree (w1 ++ w2)
-- | Decides whether two words represent the same group element in the free group
equivalentFree :: Eq idx => Word idx -> Word idx -> Bool
equivalentFree w1 w2 = null $ reduceWordFree $ w1 ++ inverseWord w2
-- | Reduces a word in a free group by repeatedly removing @x*x^(-1)@ and
-- @x^(-1)*x@ pairs. The set of /reduced words/ forms the free group; the
-- multiplication is obtained by concatenation followed by reduction.
--
reduceWordFree :: Eq idx => Word idx -> Word idx
reduceWordFree = loop where
loop w = case reduceStep w of
Nothing -> w
Just w' -> loop w'
reduceStep :: Eq a => Word a -> Maybe (Word a)
reduceStep = go False where
go !changed w = case w of
(Gen x : Inv y : rest) | x==y -> go True rest
(Inv x : Gen y : rest) | x==y -> go True rest
(this : rest) -> liftM (this:) $ go changed rest
_ -> if changed then Just w else Nothing
-- | Naive (but canonical) reduction algorithm for the free groups
reduceWordFreeNaive :: Eq idx => Word idx -> Word idx
reduceWordFreeNaive = loop where
loop w = let w' = step w in if w/=w' then loop w' else w
step = concatMap worker . groupBy (equating genIdx) where
worker gs
| s>0 = replicate s (Gen i)
| s<0 = replicate (abs s) (Inv i)
| otherwise = []
where
i = genIdx (head gs)
s = sum' (map genSignValue gs)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-- | Counts the number of words of length @n@ which reduce to the identity element.
--
-- Generating function is @Gf_g(u) = \\frac {2g-1} { g-1 + g \\sqrt{ 1 - (8g-4)u^2 } }@
--
countIdentityWordsFree
:: Int -- ^ g = number of generators in the free group
-> Int -- ^ n = length of the unreduced word
-> Integer
countIdentityWordsFree g n = countWordReductionsFree g n 0
-- | Counts the number of words of length @n@ whose reduced form has length @k@
-- (clearly @n@ and @k@ must have the same parity for this to be nonzero):
--
-- > countWordReductionsFree g n k == sum [ 1 | w <- allWords g n, k == length (reduceWordFree w) ]
--
countWordReductionsFree
:: Int -- ^ g = number of generators in the free group
-> Int -- ^ n = length of the unreduced word
-> Int -- ^ k = length of the reduced word
-> Integer
countWordReductionsFree gens_ nn_ kk_
| nn==0 = if k==0 then 1 else 0
| even nn && kk == 0 = sum [ ( binomial (nn-i) (n -i) * gg^(i ) * (gg-1)^(n -i ) * ( i) ) `div` (nn-i) | i<-[0..n ] ]
| even nn && even kk = sum [ ( binomial (nn-i) (n-k-i) * gg^(i+1) * (gg-1)^(n+k-i-1) * (kk+i) ) `div` (nn-i) | i<-[0..n-k] ]
| odd nn && odd kk = sum [ ( binomial (nn-i) (n-k-i) * gg^(i+1) * (gg-1)^(n+k-i ) * (kk+i) ) `div` (nn-i) | i<-[0..n-k] ]
| otherwise = 0
where
g = fromIntegral gens_ :: Integer
nn = fromIntegral nn_ :: Integer
kk = fromIntegral kk_ :: Integer
gg = 2*g
n = div nn 2
k = div kk 2
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-- * Free powers of cyclic groups
{-# SPECIALIZE multiplyZ2 :: Word Int -> Word Int -> Word Int #-}
{-# SPECIALIZE multiplyZ3 :: Word Int -> Word Int -> Word Int #-}
{-# SPECIALIZE multiplyZm :: Int -> Word Int -> Word Int -> Word Int #-}
-- | Multiplication in free products of Z2's
multiplyZ2 :: Eq idx => Word idx -> Word idx -> Word idx
multiplyZ2 w1 w2 = reduceWordZ2 (w1 ++ w2)
-- | Multiplication in free products of Z3's
multiplyZ3 :: Eq idx => Word idx -> Word idx -> Word idx
multiplyZ3 w1 w2 = reduceWordZ3 (w1 ++ w2)
-- | Multiplication in free products of Zm's
multiplyZm :: Eq idx => Int -> Word idx -> Word idx -> Word idx
multiplyZm k w1 w2 = reduceWordZm k (w1 ++ w2)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
{-# SPECIALIZE equivalentZ2 :: Word Int -> Word Int -> Bool #-}
{-# SPECIALIZE equivalentZ3 :: Word Int -> Word Int -> Bool #-}
{-# SPECIALIZE equivalentZm :: Int -> Word Int -> Word Int -> Bool #-}
-- | Decides whether two words represent the same group element in free products of Z2
equivalentZ2 :: Eq idx => Word idx -> Word idx -> Bool
equivalentZ2 w1 w2 = null $ reduceWordZ2 $ w1 ++ inverseWord w2
-- | Decides whether two words represent the same group element in free products of Z3
equivalentZ3 :: Eq idx => Word idx -> Word idx -> Bool
equivalentZ3 w1 w2 = null $ reduceWordZ3 $ w1 ++ inverseWord w2
-- | Decides whether two words represent the same group element in free products of Zm
equivalentZm :: Eq idx => Int -> Word idx -> Word idx -> Bool
equivalentZm m w1 w2 = null $ reduceWordZm m $ w1 ++ inverseWord w2
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
{-# SPECIALIZE reduceWordZ2 :: Word Int -> Word Int #-}
{-# SPECIALIZE reduceWordZ3 :: Word Int -> Word Int #-}
{-# SPECIALIZE reduceWordZm :: Int -> Word Int -> Word Int #-}
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-- | Reduces a word, where each generator @x@ satisfies the additional relation @x^2=1@
-- (that is, free products of Z2's)
reduceWordZ2 :: Eq idx => Word idx -> Word idx
reduceWordZ2 = loop where
loop w = case reduceStep w of
Nothing -> w
Just w' -> loop w'
reduceStep :: Eq a => Word a -> Maybe (Word a)
reduceStep = go False where
go !changed w = case w of
(Gen x : Gen y : rest) | x==y -> go True rest
(Gen x : Inv y : rest) | x==y -> go True rest
(Inv x : Gen y : rest) | x==y -> go True rest
(Inv x : Inv y : rest) | x==y -> go True rest
(this : rest) -> liftM (absGen this:) $ go changed rest
_ -> if changed then Just w else Nothing
-- | Reduces a word, where each generator @x@ satisfies the additional relation @x^3=1@
-- (that is, free products of Z3's)
reduceWordZ3 :: Eq idx => Word idx -> Word idx
reduceWordZ3 = loop where
loop w = case reduceStep w of
Nothing -> w
Just w' -> loop w'
reduceStep :: Eq a => Word a -> Maybe (Word a)
reduceStep = go False where
go !changed w = case w of
(Gen x : Inv y : rest) | x==y -> go True rest
(Inv x : Gen y : rest) | x==y -> go True rest
(Gen x : Gen y : Gen z : rest) | x==y && y==z -> go True rest
(Inv x : Inv y : Inv z : rest) | x==y && y==z -> go True rest
(Gen x : Gen y : rest) | x==y -> go True (Inv x : rest) -- !!!
(Inv x : Inv y : rest) | x==y -> go True (Gen x : rest)
(this : rest) -> liftM (this:) $ go changed rest
_ -> if changed then Just w else Nothing
-- | Reduces a word, where each generator @x@ satisfies the additional relation @x^m=1@
-- (that is, free products of Zm's)
reduceWordZm :: Eq idx => Int -> Word idx -> Word idx
reduceWordZm m = loop where
loop w = case reduceStep w of
Nothing -> w
Just w' -> loop w'
halfm = div m 2 -- if we encounter strictly more than m/2 equal elements in a row, we replace them by the inverses
-- reduceStep :: Eq a => Word a -> Maybe (Word a)
reduceStep = go False where
go !changed w = case w of
(Gen x : Inv y : rest) | x==y -> go True rest
(Inv x : Gen y : rest) | x==y -> go True rest
something | Just (k,rest) <- dropIfMoreThanHalf w -> go True (replicate (m-k) (inverseGen (head w)) ++ rest)
(this : rest) -> liftM (this:) $ go changed rest
_ -> if changed then Just w else Nothing
-- dropIfMoreThanHalf :: Eq a => Word a -> Maybe (Int, Word a)
dropIfMoreThanHalf w =
let (!k,rest) = dropWhileEqual w
in if k > halfm then Just (k,rest)
else Nothing
-- dropWhileEqual :: Eq a => Word a -> (Int, Word a)
dropWhileEqual [] = (0,[])
dropWhileEqual (x0:rest) = go 1 rest where
go !k [] = (k,[])
go !k xxs@(x:xs) = if k==m then (m,xxs)
else if x==x0 then go (k+1) xs
else (k,xxs)
{-
dropm :: Eq a => Word a -> Maybe (Word a)
dropm [] = Nothing
dropm (x:xs) = go (m-1) xs where
go 0 rest = Just rest
go j (y:ys) = if y==x
then go (j-1) ys
else Nothing
go j [] = Nothing
-}
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
{-# SPECIALIZE reduceWordZ2Naive :: Word Int -> Word Int #-}
{-# SPECIALIZE reduceWordZ3Naive :: Word Int -> Word Int #-}
{-# SPECIALIZE reduceWordZmNaive :: Int -> Word Int -> Word Int #-}
-- | Reduces a word, where each generator @x@ satisfies the additional relation @x^2=1@
-- (that is, free products of Z2's). Naive (but canonical) algorithm.
reduceWordZ2Naive :: Eq idx => Word idx -> Word idx
reduceWordZ2Naive = loop where
loop w = let w' = step w in if w/=w' then loop w' else w
step = concatMap worker . groupBy (equating genIdx) where
worker gs =
case mod s 2 of
1 -> [Gen i]
0 -> []
_ -> error "reduceWordZ2: fatal error, shouldn't happen"
where
i = genIdx (head gs)
s = sum' (map genSignValue gs)
-- | Reduces a word, where each generator @x@ satisfies the additional relation @x^3=1@
-- (that is, free products of Z3's). Naive (but canonical) algorithm.
reduceWordZ3Naive :: Eq idx => Word idx -> Word idx
reduceWordZ3Naive = loop where
loop w = let w' = step w in if w/=w' then loop w' else w
step = concatMap worker . groupBy (equating genIdx) where
worker gs =
case mod s 3 of
0 -> []
1 -> [Gen i]
2 -> [Inv i]
_ -> error "reduceWordZ3: fatal error, shouldn't happen"
where
i = genIdx (head gs)
s = sum' (map genSignValue gs)
-- | Reduces a word, where each generator @x@ satisfies the additional relation @x^m=1@
-- (that is, free products of Zm's). Naive (but canonical) algorithm.
reduceWordZmNaive :: Eq idx => Int -> Word idx -> Word idx
reduceWordZmNaive m = loop where
loop w = let w' = step w in if w/=w' then loop w' else w
step = concatMap worker . groupBy (equating genIdx) where
halfm1 = div (m+1) 2
worker gs
| mods <= halfm1 = replicate mods (Gen i)
| otherwise = replicate (m-mods) (Inv i)
where
i = genIdx (head gs)
s = sum' (map genSignValue gs)
mods = mod s m
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-- | Counts the number of words (without inverse generators) of length @n@
-- which reduce to the identity element, using the relations @x^2=1@.
--
-- Generating function is @Gf_g(u) = \\frac {2g-2} { g-2 + g \\sqrt{ 1 - (4g-4)u^2 } }@
--
-- The first few @g@ cases:
--
-- > A000984 = [ countIdentityWordsZ2 2 (2*n) | n<-[0..] ] = [1,2,6,20,70,252,924,3432,12870,48620,184756...]
-- > A089022 = [ countIdentityWordsZ2 3 (2*n) | n<-[0..] ] = [1,3,15,87,543,3543,23823,163719,1143999,8099511,57959535...]
-- > A035610 = [ countIdentityWordsZ2 4 (2*n) | n<-[0..] ] = [1,4,28,232,2092,19864,195352,1970896,20275660,211823800,2240795848...]
-- > A130976 = [ countIdentityWordsZ2 5 (2*n) | n<-[0..] ] = [1,5,45,485,5725,71445,925965,12335685,167817405,2321105525,32536755565...]
--
countIdentityWordsZ2
:: Int -- ^ g = number of generators in the free group
-> Int -- ^ n = length of the unreduced word
-> Integer
countIdentityWordsZ2 g n = countWordReductionsZ2 g n 0
-- | Counts the number of words (without inverse generators) of length @n@ whose
-- reduced form in the product of Z2-s (that is, for each generator @x@ we have @x^2=1@)
-- has length @k@
-- (clearly @n@ and @k@ must have the same parity for this to be nonzero):
--
-- > countWordReductionsZ2 g n k == sum [ 1 | w <- allWordsNoInv g n, k == length (reduceWordZ2 w) ]
--
countWordReductionsZ2
:: Int -- ^ g = number of generators in the free group
-> Int -- ^ n = length of the unreduced word
-> Int -- ^ k = length of the reduced word
-> Integer
countWordReductionsZ2 gens_ nn_ kk_
| nn==0 = if k==0 then 1 else 0
| even nn && kk == 0 = sum [ ( binomial (nn-i) (n -i) * g^(i ) * (g-1)^(n -i ) * ( i) ) `div` (nn-i) | i<-[0..n ] ]
| even nn && even kk = sum [ ( binomial (nn-i) (n-k-i) * g^(i+1) * (g-1)^(n+k-i-1) * (kk+i) ) `div` (nn-i) | i<-[0..n-k] ]
| odd nn && odd kk = sum [ ( binomial (nn-i) (n-k-i) * g^(i+1) * (g-1)^(n+k-i ) * (kk+i) ) `div` (nn-i) | i<-[0..n-k] ]
| otherwise = 0
where
g = fromIntegral gens_ :: Integer
nn = fromIntegral nn_ :: Integer
kk = fromIntegral kk_ :: Integer
n = div nn 2
k = div kk 2
-- | Counts the number of words (without inverse generators) of length @n@
-- which reduce to the identity element, using the relations @x^3=1@.
--
-- > countIdentityWordsZ3NoInv g n == sum [ 1 | w <- allWordsNoInv g n, 0 == length (reduceWordZ2 w) ]
--
-- In mathematica, the formula is: @Sum[ g^k * (g-1)^(n-k) * k/n * Binomial[3*n-k-1, n-k] , {k, 1,n} ]@
--
countIdentityWordsZ3NoInv
:: Int -- ^ g = number of generators in the free group
-> Int -- ^ n = length of the unreduced word
-> Integer
countIdentityWordsZ3NoInv gens_ nn_
| nn==0 = 1
| mod nn 3 == 0 = sum [ ( binomial (3*n-i-1) (n-i) * g^i * (g-1)^(n-i) * i ) `div` n | i<-[1..n] ]
| otherwise = 0
where
g = fromIntegral gens_ :: Integer
nn = fromIntegral nn_ :: Integer
n = div nn 3
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
{-
-- some basic testing. TODO: real tests
import Math.Combinat.Helper
import Math.Combinat.Groups.Free
g = 3 :: Int
maxn = 8 :: Int
bad_free = [ w | n<-[0..maxn] , w <- allWords g n , not (reduceWordFree w `equivalentFree` reduceWordFreeNaive w) ]
bad_z2 = [ w | n<-[0..maxn] , w <- allWords g n , not (reduceWordZ2 w `equivalentZ2` reduceWordZ2Naive w) ]
bad_z3 = [ w | n<-[0..maxn] , w <- allWords g n , not (reduceWordZ3 w `equivalentZ3` reduceWordZ3Naive w) ]
bad_zm m = [ w | n<-[0..maxn] , w <- allWords g n , not (equivalentZm m (reduceWordZm m w) (reduceWordZmNaive m w)) ]
speed_free = sum' [ length (reduceWordFree w) | n<-[0..maxn] , w <- allWords g n ]
speed_z2 = sum' [ length (reduceWordZ2 w) | n<-[0..maxn] , w <- allWords g n ]
speed_z3 = sum' [ length (reduceWordZ3 w) | n<-[0..maxn] , w <- allWords g n ]
speed_zm m = sum' [ length (reduceWordZm m w) | n<-[0..maxn] , w <- allWords g n ]
naive_speed_free = sum' [ length (reduceWordFreeNaive w) | n<-[0..maxn] , w <- allWords g n ]
naive_speed_z2 = sum' [ length (reduceWordZ2Naive w) | n<-[0..maxn] , w <- allWords g n ]
naive_speed_z3 = sum' [ length (reduceWordZ3Naive w) | n<-[0..maxn] , w <- allWords g n ]
naive_speed_zm m = sum' [ length (reduceWordZmNaive m w) | n<-[0..maxn] , w <- allWords g n ]
-}
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------